Node view

Depression in Children and Teens

British Columbia Specific Information

Emotional support, information and resources specific to mental health are available from Mental Health Support offered by the Crisis Lines Association of British Columbia by calling 310-6789. You may also visit BC Mental Health & Addiction Services or HereToHelp for additional resources and services. Children and teens can also call the Kids Help Phone to speak to a counsellor at 1-800-668-6868 or visit Kids Help Phone for information on the resources and support available.

Suicide assessment and intervention are available from Crisis Lines across British Columbia by calling the Crisis Line Association of British Columbia at 1-800-784-2433 (1-800-SUICIDE). For more places to get help, visit Crisis Centre – Get Help. If you are in an emergency, call 9-1-1.

Topic Overview

Is this topic for you?

This topic covers depression in children and teens. For information about depression in adults, see the topic Depression. For information about depression with episodes of high energy (mania), see the topic Bipolar Disorder in Children and Teens.

What is depression in children and teens?

Depression is a serious mood disorder that can take the joy from a child's life. It is normal for a child to be moody or sad from time to time. You can expect these feelings after the death of a pet or a move to a new city. But if these feelings last for weeks or months, they may be a sign of depression.

Experts used to think that only adults could get depression. Now we know that even a young child can have depression that needs treatment to improve. As many as 2 out of 100 young children and 8 out of 100 teens have serious depression.footnote 1

Still, many children don't get the treatment they need. This is partly because it can be hard to tell the difference between depression and normal moodiness. Also, depression may not look the same in a child as in an adult.

If you are worried about your child, learn more about the symptoms in children. Talk to your child to see how he or she is feeling. If you think your child is depressed, talk to your doctor or a counsellor. The sooner a child gets treatment, the sooner he or she will start to feel better.

What are the symptoms?

A child may be depressed if he or she:

  • Is irritable, sad, withdrawn, or bored most of the time.
  • Does not take pleasure in things he or she used to enjoy.

A child who is depressed may also:

  • Lose or gain weight.
  • Sleep too much or too little.
  • Feel hopeless, worthless, or guilty.
  • Have trouble concentrating, thinking, or making decisions.
  • Think about death or suicide a lot.

The symptoms of depression are often overlooked at first. It can be hard to see that symptoms are all part of the same problem.

Also, the symptoms may be different depending on how old the child is.

  • Both very young children and grade-school children may lack energy and become withdrawn. They may show little emotion, seem to feel hopeless, and have trouble sleeping. Often they will lose interest in friends and activities they liked before. They may complain of headaches or stomach aches. A child may be more anxious or clingy with caregivers.
  • Teens may sleep a lot or move or speak more slowly than usual. Some teens and children with severe depression may see or hear things that aren't there (hallucinate) or have false beliefs (delusions).

Depression can range from mild to severe. A child who feels a little "down" most of the time for a year or more may have a milder, ongoing form of depression called dysthymia (say "dis-THY-mee-uh"). In its most severe form, depression can cause a child to lose hope and want to die.

Whether depression is mild or severe, there are treatments that can help.

What causes depression?

Just what causes depression is not well understood. But it is linked to a problem with activity levels in certain parts of the brain as well as an imbalance of brain chemicals that affect mood. Things that may cause these problems include:

  • Stressful events, such as changing schools, going through a divorce, or losing a close family member or friend.
  • Some medicines, such as steroids or opioids for pain relief.
  • Family history. In some children, depression seems to be inherited.

How is depression diagnosed?

To diagnose depression, a doctor may do a physical examination and ask questions about your child's past health. You and your child may be asked to fill out a form about your child's symptoms. The doctor may ask your child questions to learn more about how he or she thinks, acts, and feels.

Some diseases can cause symptoms that look like depression. So the child may have tests to help rule out physical problems, such as a low thyroid level or anemia.

It is common for children with depression to have other problems too, such as anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or an eating disorder. The doctor may ask questions about these problems to help your child get the right diagnosis and treatment.

How is it treated?

Usually one of the first steps in treating depression is education for the child and his or her family. Teaching both the child and the family about depression can be a big help. It makes them less likely to blame themselves for the problem. Sometimes it can help other family members see that they are also depressed.

Counselling may help the child feel better. The type of counselling will depend on the age of the child. For young children, play therapy may be best. Older children and teens may benefit from cognitive-behavioural therapy. This type of counselling can help them change negative thoughts that make them feel bad.

Medicine may be an option if the child is very depressed. Combining antidepressant medicine with counselling often works best. A child with severe depression may need to be treated in the hospital.

There are some things you can do at home to help your child start to feel better.

  • Encourage your child to get regular exercise, spend time with supportive friends, eat healthy foods, and get enough sleep.
  • See that your child takes any medicine as prescribed and goes to all follow-up appointments.
  • Make time to talk and listen to your child. Ask how he or she is feeling. Express your love and support.
  • Remind your child that things will get better in time.

What should you know about antidepressant medicines?

Antidepressant medicines often work well for children who are depressed. But there are some important things you should know about these medicines.

  • Children who take antidepressants should be watched closely. These medicines may increase the risk that a child will think about or try suicide, especially in the first few weeks of use. If your child takes an antidepressant, learn the warning signs of suicide, and get help right away if you see any of them. Common warning signs include:
    • Talking, drawing, or writing about death.
    • Giving away belongings.
    • Withdrawing from family and friends.
    • Having a plan, such as a gun or pills.
  • Your child may start to feel better after 1 to 3 weeks of taking antidepressant medicine. But it can take as many as 6 to 8 weeks to see more improvement. Make sure your child takes antidepressants as prescribed and keeps taking them so they have time to work.
  • A child may need to try several different antidepressants to find one that works. If you notice any warning signs or have concerns about the medicine, or if you do not notice any improvement by 3 weeks, talk to your child's doctor.
  • Do not let a child suddenly stop taking antidepressants. This could be dangerous. Your doctor can help you taper off the dose slowly to prevent problems.

Health Tools

Health Tools help you make wise health decisions or take action to improve your health.

Decision Points focus on key medical care decisions that are important to many health problems.
Actionsets are designed to help people take an active role in managing a health condition.

Cause

Depression is thought to be caused by an imbalance of chemicals called neurotransmitters that send messages between nerve cells in your brain. Some of these chemicals, such as serotonin, help regulate mood. If these mood-influencing chemicals get out of balance, depression or other mood disorders can result. Experts have not yet identified why neurotransmitters become imbalanced. They believe a change can occur as a response to stress or illness. But a change may also occur with no obvious trigger.

There are several things known to increase the chances that a young person may become depressed.

  • Depression runs in families. Children and teens who have a parent with depression are more likely to develop depression than children with parents who are not depressed. Experts believe that both inherited traits (genetics) as well as living with a parent who is depressed can cause depression.
  • Depression in children and teens may be linked to stress, social problems, and unresolved family conflict. It can also be linked to traumatic events, such as violence, abuse, or neglect.
  • Certain thinking patterns and coping styles may make some children and teens more likely to develop depression.
  • Children or teens who have long-term or serious medical conditions, learning problems, or behaviour problems are more likely to develop depression.
  • Some medicines can trigger depression, such as steroids or opioids for pain relief. As soon as the medicine is stopped, symptoms usually disappear.
  • Alcohol and drug misuse may trigger depression in children and teens.

Symptoms

The symptoms of depression are often subtle at first. They may occur suddenly or happen slowly over time. It can be hard to recognize that symptoms may be connected and that your child might have depression.

Physical symptoms

  • Unexplained aches and pains, such as headaches or stomach pain
  • Trouble sleeping, or sleeping too much
  • Changes in eating habits that lead to weight gain or loss or not making expected weight gains
  • Constant tiredness, lack of energy
  • Body movements that seem slow, restless, or agitated

Mental or emotional symptoms

  • Irritability or temper tantrums
  • Difficulty thinking and making decisions
  • Having low self-esteem, being self-critical, and/or feeling that others are unfairly critical
  • Feelings of guilt and hopelessness
  • Social withdrawal, such as lack of interest in friends
  • Anxiety, such as worrying too much or fearing separation from a parent
  • Thinking about death or feeling suicidal

It's important to watch for warning signs of suicide in your child or teen. These signs may change with age. Warning signs of suicide in children and teens may include preoccupation with death or suicide or a recent breakup of a relationship.

Depression can have symptoms that are similar to those caused by other conditions.

Less common symptoms

Severely depressed children may also have other symptoms, such as:

Normal moodiness vs. depression

Telling the difference between normal moodiness and symptoms of depression can be hard. Occasional feelings of sadness or irritability are normal. They allow the child to process grief or cope with the challenges of life.

For example, grieving (bereavement) is a normal response to loss, such as the death of a family member or even the death a pet, loss of a friendship, or parents' divorce. After a severe loss, a child may remain sad for a longer period of time.

But when these emotions do not go away or begin to interfere with the young person's life, he or she may need treatment.

Bipolar disorder

Some children who are first diagnosed with depression are later diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Children or teens with bipolar disorder have extreme mood swings between depression and bouts of mania (very high energy, agitation, or irritability).

It can be hard to tell the difference between bipolar disorder and depression. It is common for children with bipolar disorder to first be diagnosed with only depression and later to be diagnosed with bipolar disorder after a first manic episode. Although depression is part of the condition, bipolar disorder requires different treatment than depression alone.

Like depression, bipolar disorder runs in families. So be sure to tell your doctor if your child has a family history of bipolar disorder. For more information on bipolar disorder, see the topic Bipolar Disorder in Children and Teens.

What Happens

At first, depression in a child or teen may appear as irritability, sadness, or sudden, unexplained crying. He or she may lose interest in activities enjoyed in the past or may feel unloved and hopeless. He or she may have problems in school and become withdrawn or defiant.

An episode of depression lasts an average of 8 months.footnote 2 Even with successful treatment, as many as 40 out of 100 children with depression will have another episode within a few years.footnote 3

Less than half of children and teens with depression receive treatment.footnote 4 This may be partly due to the old belief that young people don't get depression.

Also, teens often do not seek help for depression. They may think feeling bad is normal, or they may blame something else (or themselves) for their symptoms. Or they may not know where to go for help. Tell your child to ask for help if he or she feels bad. And let your child know who to go to for help with depression or other problems.

Drugs and alcohol

Some teens will have alcohol or drug use problems along with depression. When this happens, depression is harder to treat, and it can take longer for treatment to work. Drug or alcohol use also increases the risk of suicide.

Early diagnosis and treatment of depression and good communication with your child can help prevent substance use problems. For more information about substance use problems in young people, see the topic Alcohol and Drug Use in Young People.

Other problems

Often a child who is depressed will have other disorders along with depression, such as an anxiety disorder, a behaviour disorder like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), an eating disorder, or a learning disorder.

These problems may occur before a young person becomes depressed. Some children with depression develop serious behaviour problems (conduct disorder), often after becoming depressed. If your child has one of these disorders, it may require treatment along with depression.

Children and teens with depression are also at a higher risk for problems such as:

  • Poor school or job performance.
  • Problems in relationships with peers and family members.
  • Early pregnancy.
  • Physical illness.

Treatment in the hospital

For severe depression, your child may need to be hospitalized, especially if he or she is out of touch with reality (psychotic) or is having thoughts of suicide.

Relapse

During treatment for depression, make sure that your child takes medicines and attends counselling appointments as directed, even if he or she feels better. A common cause of relapse is stopping treatment too soon.

Suicide and depression

It's very important to recognize the warning signs of suicide in your child or teen. Carefully watch for signs of suicidal behaviour if your child has recently:

  • Broken up with a girlfriend or boyfriend.
  • Had disciplinary troubles in school or with the law.
  • Had problems with poor grades or had trouble learning.
  • Had family problems.
  • Been the victim of repeated bullying.
  • Had substance use problems.
  • Started, stopped, or changed doses of an antidepressant medicine.

It is extremely important that you take all threats of suicide seriously and seek immediate treatment for your child or teenager. If you are a child or teen and have these feelings, talk with your parents, an adult friend, or your doctor right away to get some help. If your child is suicidal, call 911 or other emergency services immediately.

What Increases Your Risk

Several things increase a young person's chance of developing depression. These include:

  • Having a parent or immediate family member who is depressed. This is the most important risk factor for depression. Children or teens who have a parent with depression are up to 3 times more likely to develop depression.
  • Having been depressed before, especially if depression first occurred at an early age.
  • Having a long-term medical condition, such as diabetes or epilepsy.
  • Having another mental disorder, such as conduct disorder or an anxiety disorder.
  • Having a family member or close friend die.
  • Being physically or sexually abused.
  • Having problems with alcohol or drug use.

Other risk factors for depression include:

  • Being a girl in early puberty. Until puberty, boys and girls have an equal risk for depression. After puberty and as adults, females are twice as likely as males to become depressed.
  • Being exposed to repeated family conflict.
  • Not having good social relationships with peers.
  • Being a bully or a victim of bullying.footnote 5

When should you call your doctor?

Call
911 or other emergency services immediately if:

  • Your child is thinking seriously of suicide or has recently tried suicide. Serious signs include these thoughts:
    • Deciding how to kill themself, such as with a weapon or pills.
    • Setting a time, place, and means to do it.
    • Thinking there is no other way to solve the problem or end the pain.
  • Your child feels that they can't stop from hurting themself or someone else.

Keep the number for a suicide crisis centre on or near your phone. Go to the Canadian Association for Suicide Prevention web page at http://suicideprevention.ca/need-help to find a suicide crisis prevention centre in your area.

Call a doctor now if:

  • Your child hears voices.
  • Your child has been thinking about death or suicide a lot but doesn't have a suicide plan.
  • Your child is worried a lot that the feelings of depression or thoughts of suicide aren't going away.

Seek care soon if:

  • Your child has symptoms of depression, such as:
    • Feeling sad or hopeless, or being irritable.
    • Not enjoying anything.
    • Often complaining of stomachaches or headaches.
    • Having trouble with sleep.
    • Feeling guilty.
    • Feeling anxious or worried.
  • Your child has been treated for depression for more than 3 weeks but is not getting better.

Examinations and Tests

Your doctor or another health professional will evaluate and diagnose depression in your child by asking questions about your child's medical history and conducting tests to find out if symptoms are caused by something other than depression. Your child may be given a physical examination or blood tests to rule out conditions such as hypothyroidism and anemia. Your child may be asked to complete a mental health assessment, which tests his or her ability to think, reason, and remember.

You may be asked to help complete a pediatric symptom checklist, a brief screening questionnaire that helps to diagnose depression or other psychological problems in children. Also, your child may be asked to take a short written or verbal test for depression.

Sometimes a more thorough evaluation may be needed to fully assess your child's depression. Interviews may be conducted with the parents or with other people who know the young person well. Specific information may be obtained from the child's teachers or from social service workers.

Treatment Overview

The sooner treatment begins for depression, the sooner your child is likely to recover. Waiting to seek treatment for depression may mean a longer and more difficult recovery.

Treatment typically includes professional counselling, medicines, and education about depression for your child and your family.

Home treatment is an important part of treating depression. It includes regular exercise, healthy eating, and getting enough sleep.

Counselling

Professional counselling for depression includes several types of therapy, such as cognitive-behavioural therapy and family therapy. For more information about counselling, see Other Treatment.

Medicines

Medicines used to treat childhood depression include several types of drugs called antidepressants.

An important part of treatment is making sure that your child takes medicines as prescribed. Often people who feel better after taking an antidepressant for a period of time may feel like they are "cured" and no longer need treatment. But when medicine is stopped too early, symptoms usually return. So it is important that your child follows the treatment plan.

Health Canada and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have issued advisories on antidepressant medicines and the risk of suicide. Talk to your doctor about these possible side effects and the warning signs of suicide

Before prescribing medicine, your doctor will check your child for possible suicidal thoughts by asking a few questions. See a list of questions your doctor may ask your child.

Education

Education of your child and family members can be provided by a doctor either informally or in family therapy. Some of the most important things that your child and family members can learn include:

  • Knowing how to make sure a child is following a treatment plan, such as taking medicine correctly and going to counselling appointments.
  • Learning ways to reduce stress caused by living with someone who has depression.
  • Knowing the signs of a relapse and what to do to prevent depression from recurring.
  • Knowing the signs of suicidal behaviour, how to evaluate their seriousness, and how to respond.
  • Learning how to identify signs of a manic episode, which is a bout of extremely high mood and energy, or irritability that is a sign of bipolar disorder.
  • Seeking treatment if you are a parent with depression. If a parent's depression goes untreated, it may interfere with the recovery of the child.

Additional treatment

Your child may need treatment for other disorders that may be causing ongoing symptoms, such as:

A brief hospital stay may be needed, especially if your child:

If your child is depressed, consider removing all guns and potentially fatal medicines from your home, especially if your child has shown any warning signs of suicide. Although overdosing on medicine is the most common way that teens attempt suicide, your child is at higher risk for dying by suicide if you have a gun in your home, particularly if it is easy to get to it or if you store it loaded.footnote 6

Prevention

It is difficult to prevent a first episode of depression. But it may be possible to prevent or reduce the severity of future episodes of depression (relapses).

  • There is some evidence that if a child receives cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) in a group setting, it can help prevent or delay the onset of depression in a child or teen whose parent has a history of depression (which puts the child at greater risk for becoming depressed).footnote 7
  • Your child must take medicines as prescribed, keep counselling appointments, eat a balanced diet, and get regular exercise. For more information, see the topic Physical Activity for Children and Teens.
  • Make sure that your child has a good social support system, both at home and through teachers, other family members, and friends who can provide encouragement and understanding.
  • Learn to recognize early symptoms of depression, and seek immediate diagnosis and treatment if they occur.
  • Some schools provide educational materials and group therapy opportunities to those at high risk for depression, such as those who have family conflict or problems with peers.

Home Treatment

Do everything possible to provide a supportive family environment. Love, understanding, and regular communication are some of the most important things you can provide to help your child cope with depression.

In addition to having a positive home life, staying in professional counselling, and taking medicines as prescribed, good lifestyle habits can help reduce your child's symptoms of depression. Encourage your child to:

  • Get regular exercise, such as swimming, walking, or playing vigorously every day. For more information, see the topic Physical Activity for Children and Teens.
  • Avoid alcohol and illegal drugs, non-prescription medicines, herbal therapies, and medicines that have not been prescribed (because they may interfere with the medicines used to treat depression).
  • Get enough sleep. If your child has problems sleeping, he or she might try:
    • Going to bed at the same time every night.
    • Keeping the bedroom dark and quiet.
    • Not exercising after 5:00 p.m.
  • Eat a balanced diet. If your child lacks an appetite, try to get him or her to eat small snacks rather than large meals.
  • Spend time with supportive friends.
  • Be hopeful about feeling better. Positive thinking is very important in recovering from depression. It is difficult to be hopeful when you feel depressed, but remind your child that improvement occurs gradually and takes time.

If you notice any warning signs of suicide (such as aggressive or hostile behaviour, excessive thoughts about death, or detachment from reality), seek professional help immediately by calling either your child's doctor, a professional counsellor, or a local mental health or emergency service. Create a plan to help keep your child safe. Lock away knives and other sharp objects, firearms, poisons, and medicines. Call 911 if you feel your child is in immediate danger.

Medications

Although experts believe that, for many children with depression, the benefits of medicine outweigh the risks, research on antidepressant medicine in children is limited. The long-term effects and safety of medicines used to treat depression in children and teens are still unknown.

You may have heard about concerns regarding a possible connection between antidepressant medicines and suicidal behaviour. Health Canada and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have issued advisories about this issue. For example, Health Canada advises against the use of paroxetine (Paxil) for depression in children less than 18 years of age. 

Especially during the first few weeks of treatment with an antidepressant, there is a possible increase in suicidal feelings or behaviour. A child beginning antidepressant treatment should be watched closely. But children with untreated depression are also at an increased risk for suicide. So it is important to carefully weigh all of the risks and benefits of antidepressant medicine.

Medicine choices

Antidepressant medicines include:

    • Bupropion (Wellbutrin, for example).
    • Fluoxetine (Prozac, for example).
    • Sertraline (Zoloft, for example).
    • Citalopram (Celexa, for example).
    • Escitalopram (Cipralex, for example).
    • Venlafaxine (Effexor, for example).

What to think about

Antidepressant medicines such as fluoxetine (Prozac, for example) can be effective in treating depression, but it may take 1 to 3 weeks before your child starts to feel better. It can take as many as 6 to 8 weeks to see more improvement. Make sure your child takes antidepressant medicines as prescribed and keeps taking them so they have time to work. If you have any questions or concerns about the medicine, or if you do not notice any improvement by 3 weeks, talk to your child's doctor.

When a child starts taking antidepressant medication they should be closely monitored, especially during the first 4 weeks of treatment. Look for the following signs: worsening of their depression, suicidal thoughts or behaviours, as well as changes in their regular behaviour. Examples of behavioural changes include: not being able to sleep, being agitated, or withdrawing (not participating) from normal social situations. 

Some antidepressants may also be effective in treating other conditions such as anxiety.

Your child may have to try several medicines or different dosages before the most effective treatment is discovered. After the right medicine and dosage is found, your child may need to continue taking the medicine for several months or longer after the symptoms of depression have subsided, to prevent depression from occurring again.

Some children who are first diagnosed with depression are later diagnosed with bipolar disorder, which has symptoms that cycle from depression to mania (very high energy, often with euphoria, agitation, irritability, risk-taking behaviour, or impulsiveness). If your child or teen has bipolar disorder, a first episode of mania can happen spontaneously. But it can also be triggered by certain medicines such as stimulants or antidepressants. That is why it is very important to tell your child's doctor about any family history of bipolar disorder and to watch your child closely for signs of manic behaviour. For more information about bipolar disorder in young people, see the topic Bipolar Disorder in Children and Teens.

Advisories

Health Canada and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have issued advisories on antidepressant medicines and the risk of suicide. Health Canada and the FDA do not recommend that people stop using these medicines. Instead, a person taking antidepressants should be watched for warning signs of suicide. These signs may include talking about death or suicide and giving away belongings. This is especially important at the beginning of treatment or when doses are changed.

Other Treatment

Besides taking medicine, other treatment for depression includes professional counselling and electroconvulsive therapy.

Complementary medicine is sometimes used for depression in adults. But there is no evidence that these therapies are safe for use by children or teens.footnote 8 They can interfere with other medicines, such as antidepressants. Always tell your doctor if you are using any complementary therapies.

Other treatment choices

  • Types of counselling most often used to treat depression in children and teens are:
    • Cognitive-behavioural therapy, which helps reduce negative patterns of thinking and encourages positive behaviours.
    • Interpersonal therapy, which focuses on the child's relationships with others.
    • Problem-solving therapy, which helps the child deal with current problems.
    • Family therapy, which provides a place for the whole family to express fears and concerns and learn new ways of getting along.
    • Play therapy, which is used with young children or children with developmental delays to help them cope with fears and anxieties. But there is no proof that this type of treatment reduces symptoms of depression.
  • Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may be an effective treatment for a teen or older child who is severely depressed or does not respond to other treatment, although this treatment is rarely used for children and teens. Even though it is an effective treatment for adults with major depression, there are currently no long-term studies on the safety of using ECT.footnote 8

What to think about

Health Canada has approved the vagus nerve stimulator (VNS) implant for treatment of depression in adults. This device may be used when other treatments for depression have not worked.

A generator the size of a pocket watch is placed in the chest. Wires go up the neck from the generator to the vagus nerve. The generator sends tiny electric shocks through the vagus nerve to that part of the brain that is believed to play a role in mood.

More study is needed to see how well this works in children who have depression.

References

Citations

  1. Wagner KD, Brent DA (2009). Depressive disorders and suicide. In BJ Sadock et al., eds., Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9th ed., vol. 2, pp. 3652–3663. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
  2. Wagner KD, Brent DA (2009). Depressive disorders and suicide. In BJ Sadock et al., eds., Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9th ed., vol. 2, pp. 3652–3663. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
  3. Hazell P (2011). Depression in children and adolescents, search date July 2011. BMJ Clinical Evidence. Available online: http://www.clinicalevidence.com.
  4. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2009). Major depressive episode and treatment among adolescents. National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) Report. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Available online: http://oas.samhsa.gov/2k9/youthDepression/MDEandTXTforADOL.htm.
  5. Vanderbilt D, Augustyn M (2011). Bullying and school violence. In RM Kliegman et al., eds., Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 19th ed., online chap. 36.1. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier. Available online: http://www.expertconsult.com.
  6. Dulcan MK, et al. (2012). Special clinical circumstances. In Concise Guide to Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 4th ed., pp. 209–254. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
  7. Garber J, et al. (2009). Prevention of depression in at-risk adolescents: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 301(21): 2215–2224.
  8. Hazell P (2011). Depression in children and adolescents, search date July 2011. BMJ Clinical Evidence. Available online: http://www.clinicalevidence.com.

Credits

Adaptation Date: 4/28/2022

Adapted By: HealthLink BC

Adaptation Reviewed By: HealthLink BC